Vocabulary


 * Basic Vocabulary Knowledge **

//Taken from segments of “Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read” at http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/reading_first1.html//

Vocabulary
Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively. In general, vocabulary can be described as oral vocabulary or reading vocabulary. Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or recognize in listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print. Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. As beginning readers, children use the words they have heard to make sense of the words they see in print. Consider, for example, what happens when a beginning reader comes to the word **//dig//** in a book. As she begins to figure out the sounds represented by the letters **//d, i, g,//** the reader recognizes that the sounds make up a very familiar word that she has heard and said many times. Beginning readers have a much more difficult time reading words that are not already part of their oral vocabulary. Vocabulary also is very important to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. As children learn to read more advanced texts, they must learn the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.

Researchers often refer to four types of vocabulary

 * //listening vocabulary-//**the words we need to know to understand what we hear.
 * //speaking vocabulary-//**the words we use when we speak.
 * //reading vocabulary-//**the words we need to know to understand what we read.
 * //writing vocabulary-//**the words we use in writing.

Scientific Research on Vocabulary Instruction
The scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that (1) most vocabulary is learned indirectly, and (2) some vocabulary must be taught directly. The following conclusions about indirect vocabulary learning and direct vocabulary instruction are of particular interest and value to classroom teachers: // 1. Children learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and written language. // Children learn word meanings indirectly in three ways:

They engage daily in oral language.
Young children learn word meanings through conversations with other people, especially adults. As they engage in these conversations, children often hear adults repeat words several times. They also may hear adults use new and interesting words. The more oral language experiences children have, the more word meanings they learn.

They listen to adults read to them.
Children learn word meanings from listening to adults read to them. Reading aloud is particularly helpful when the reader pauses during reading to define an unfamiliar word and, after reading, engages the child in a conversation about the book. Conversations about books help children to learn new words and concepts and to relate them to their prior knowledge and experience.

They read extensively on their own.
Children learn many new words by reading extensively on their own. The more children read on their own, the more words they encounter and the more word meanings they learn.

// 2. Although a great deal of vocabulary is learned indirectly, some vocabulary should be taught directly. //
Direct instruction helps students learn difficult words, such as words that represent complex concepts that are not part of the students' everyday experiences. Direct instruction of vocabulary relevant to a given text leads to a better reading comprehension. Direct instruction includes: (1) providing students with specific word instruction; and

(2) teaching students word-learning strategies.

Specific word instruction
Specific word instruction, or teaching individual words, can deepen students' knowledge of word meanings. In-depth knowledge of word meanings can help students understand what they are hearing or reading. It also can help them use words accurately in speaking and writing. In particular:
 * Teaching specific words before reading helps both vocabulary learning and reading comprehension.**

Before students read a text, it is helpful to teach them specific words they will see in the text. Teaching important vocabulary before reading can help students both learn new words and comprehend the text.
 * Extended instruction that promotes active engagement with vocabulary improves word learning.**

Children learn words best when they are provided with instruction over an extended period of time and when that instruction has them work actively with the words. The more students use new words and the more they use them in different contexts, the more likely they are to learn the words.
 * Repeated exposure to vocabulary in many contexts aids word learning.**

Students learn new words better when they encounter them often and in various contexts. The more children see, hear, and work with specific words, the better they seem to learn them. When teachers provide extended instruction that promotes active engagement, they give students repeated exposure to new words. When the students read those same words in their texts, they increase their exposure to the new words.

Word learning strategies
Of course, it is not possible for teachers to provide specific instruction for all the words their students do not know. Therefore, students also need to be able to determine the meaning of words that are new to them but not taught directly to them. They need to develop effective word-learning strategies. Word-learning strategies include: (1) how to use dictionaries and other reference aids to learn word meanings and to deepen knowledge of word meanings;

(2) how to use information about word parts to figure out the meanings of words in text; and

(3) how to use context clues to determine word meanings. Learning suffixes can be more challenging than learning prefixes. This is because some suffixes have more abstract meanings than do prefixes. For example, learning that the suffix -ness means "the state or quality of" might not help students figure out the meaning of kindness. Other suffixes, however, are more helpful. For example, -less, which means "without" (hopeless, thoughtless); and -ful, which means "full of" (hopeful, thoughtful). Latin and Greek word roots are found commonly in content-area school subjects, especially in the subjects of science and social studies. As a result, Latin and Greek word parts form a large proportion of the new vocabulary that students encounter in their content-area textbooks. Teachers should teach the word roots as they occur in the texts students read. Furthermore, teachers should teach primarily those root words that students are likely to see often. Word parts include //affixes// (prefixes and suffixes), //base words,// and //word roots.//
 * Using dictionaries and other reference aids.** Students must learn how to use dictionaries, glossaries, and thesauruses to help broaden and deepen their knowledge of words, even though these resources can be difficult to use. The most helpful dictionaries include sentences providing clear examples of word meanings in context.
 * Using word parts.** Knowing some common prefixes and suffixes (affixes), base words, and root words can help students learn the meanings of many new words. For example, if students learn just the four most common prefixes in English (un-, re-, in-, dis-), they will have important clues about the meaning of about two thirds of all English words that have prefixes. Prefixes are relatively easy to learn because they have clear meanings (for example, un- means not and re- means again); they are usually spelled the same way from word to word; and, of course, they always occur at the beginnings of words.
 * //Affixes//** are word parts that are "fixed to" either the beginnings of words (prefixes) or the ending of words (suffixes). The word //disrespectful// has two affixes, a prefix (//dis-//) and a suffix (//-ful//).
 * //Base words//** are words from which many other words are formed.

For example, many words can be formed from the base word //migrate: migration, migrant, immigration, immigrant, migrating, migratory.// Not all contexts are helpful, however. Some contexts give little information about a word's meaning. An example of an unhelpful context is the sentence, "We heard the back door open, and then recognized the buoyant footsteps of Uncle Larry." A number of possible meanings of buoyant could fit this context, including heavy, lively, noisy, familiar, dragging, plodding, and so on. Instruction in using context clues as a word-learning strategy should include the idea that some contexts are more helpful than others.
 * //Word roots//** are the words from other languages that are the origin of many English words. About 60% of all English words have Latin or Greek origins.
 * Using context clues.** Context clues are hints about the meaning of an unknown word that are provided in the words, phrases, and sentences that surround the word. Context clues include definitions, restatements, examples, or descriptions. Because students learn most word meanings indirectly, or from context, it is important that they learn to use context clues effectively.

How can I help my students learn words indirectly?
You can encourage indirect learning of vocabulary in two main ways. First, read aloud to your students, no matter what grade you teach. Students of all ages can learn words from hearing texts of various kinds read to them. Reading aloud works best when you discuss the selection before, during, and after you read. Talk with students about new vocabulary and concepts and help them relate the words to their prior knowledge and experiences. The second way to promote indirect learning of vocabulary is to encourage students to read extensively on their own. Rather than allocating instructional time for independent reading in the classroom, however, encourage your students to read more outside of school. Of course, your students also can read on their own during independent work time in the classroom-for example, while you teach another small group or after students have completed one activity and are waiting for a new activity to begin.

What words should I teach?
You won't be able to directly teach your students all the words in a text that they might not already know. In fact, there are several reasons why you should not directly teach all unknown words. You will probably be able to teach thoroughly only a few new words (perhaps eight or ten) per week, so you need to choose the words you teach carefully. Focus on teaching three types of words:
 * The text may have a great many words that are unknown to students-too many for direct instruction.
 * Direct vocabulary instruction can take a lot of class time-time that you might better spend on having your students read.
 * Your students can understand most texts without knowing the meaning of every word in the text.
 * Your students need opportunities to use word-learning strategies to learn on their own the meanings of unknown words.


 * Important words.** When you teach words before students read a text, directly teach those words that are important for understanding a concept or the text. Your students might not know several other words in the selection, but you will not have time to teach them all. Of course, you should prepare your students to use word-learning strategies to figure out the meanings of other words in the text.


 * Useful words.** Teach words that students are likely to see and use again and again. For example, it is probably more useful for students to learn the word //fragment// than the word //fractal;// likewise, the word //revolve// is more useful than the word //gyrate.//

Words with multiple meanings are particularly challenging for students. Students may have a hard time understanding that words with the same spelling and/or pronunciation can have different meanings, depending on their context. Looking up words with multiple meanings in the dictionary can cause confusion for students. They see a number of different definitions listed, and they often have a difficult time deciding which definition fits the context. You will have to help students determine which definition they should choose. Idiomatic expressions also can be difficult for students, especially for students who are English language learners. Because idiomatic expressions do not mean what the individual words usually mean, you often will need to explain to students expressions such as "hard hearted," "a chip off the old block," "drawing a blank," or "get the picture."
 * Difficult words.** Provide some instruction for words that are particularly difficult for your students.
 * **Multiple-meaning words that can be difficult for students:** || **Examples** ||
 * Words that are spelled the same but are pronounced differently || **//sow//** (a female pig); **//sow//** (to plant seeds)


 * //bow//** (a knot with loops); **//bow//** (the front of a ship) ||
 * Words that are spelled and pronounced the same, but have different meanings || **//mail//** (letters, cards, and packages); **//mail//** (a type of armor)


 * //ray//** (a narrow beam of light); **//ray//** (a type of fish); ray (part of a line) ||

How well do my students need to "know" vocabulary words?
Students do not either //know// or //not know// words. Rather, they know words to varying degrees. They may never have seen or heard a word before. They may have heard or seen it, but have only a vague idea of what it means. Or they may be very familiar with the meaning of a word and be able to use it accurately in their own speech and writing. These three levels of word knowledge are called **//unknown, acquainted,//** and **//established.//** As they read, students can usually get by with some words at the unknown or acquainted levels. If students are to understand the text fully, however, they need to have an established level of knowledge for most of the words that they read.
 * **Level of Word Knowledge** || **Definition** ||
 * Unknown || The word is completely unfamiliar and its meaning is unknown. ||
 * Acquainted || The word is somewhat familiar; the student has some idea of its basic meaning. ||
 * Established || The word is very familiar; the student can immediately recognize its meaning and use the word correctly. ||

If so, are some types of learning more difficult than others?
Four different kinds of word learning have been identified: These types vary in difficulty. One of the most common, yet challenging, is the third type: learning the meaning of a new word representing an unknown concept. Much of learning in the content areas involves this type of word learning. As students learn about **//deserts, hurricanes,//** and **//immigrants,//** they may be learning both new concepts and new words. Learning words and concepts in science, social studies, and mathematics is even more challenging because each major concept often is associated with many other new concepts. For example, the concept **//deserts//** is often associated with other concepts that may be unfamiliar, such as cactus, plateau, and mesa.
 * learning a new meaning for a known word;
 * learning the meaning for a new word representing a known concept;
 * learning the meaning of a new word representing an unknown concept; and
 * clarifying and enriching the meaning of a known word.
 * **Type of word Learning** || **Explanation** ||
 * Learning a new meaning for a known word || The student has the word in her oral or reading vocabulary, but she is learning a new meaning for it. For example, the student knows what a **//branch//** is,and is learning in social studies about both **//branches//** of rivers and **//branches//** of government. ||
 * Learning the meaning for a new word representing a known concept || The student is familiar with the concept but he does not know the particular word for that concept. For example, the student has had a lot of experience with baseballs and globes, but does not know that they are examples of **//spheres.//** ||
 * Learning the meaning of a new word representing an unknown concept || The student is not familiar with either the concept or the word that represents that concept, and she must learn both. For example, the student may not be familiar with either the process or the word **//photosynthesis.//** ||
 * Clarifying and enriching the meaning of a known word || The student is learning finer, more subtle distinctions, or connotations, in the meaning and usage of words. For example, he is learning the differences between **//running, jogging, trotting, dashing, and sprinting.//** ||

What else can I do to help my students develop vocabulary?
Another way you can help your students develop vocabulary is to foster word consciousness-an awareness of and interest in words, their meanings, and their power. Word-conscious students know many words and use them well. They enjoy words and are eager to learn new words-and they know how to learn them. You can help your students develop word consciousness in several ways. Call their attention to the way authors choose words to convey particular meanings. Encourage students to play with words by engaging in word play, such as puns or palindromes. Help them research a word's origin or history. You can also encourage them to search for examples of a word's usage in their everyday lives.

Summing up
Vocabulary refers to Vocabulary is important because Vocabulary can be developed
 * the words we must know to communicate effectively.
 * **Oral** vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or recognize in listening.
 * **Reading** vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print.
 * beginning readers use their oral vocabulary to make sense of the words they see in print.
 * readers must know what most of the words mean before they can understand what they are reading.
 * **indirectly,** when students engage daily in oral language, listen to adults read to them, and read extensively on their own.
 * **directly,** when students are explicitly taught both individual words and word learning strategies.

//Taken from segments of Vocabulary in Beginning Reading from the Institute for Development of Educational Achievement at []//

What is Vocabulary?

 * || ===Beginning readers should develop a rich and functional vocabulary.=== ||


 * Definition:** As a learner begins to read, reading vocabulary is mapped onto the oral vocabulary the learner brings to the task.

Vocabulary Knowledge is...

 * Learning, as a language based activity, is fundamentally and profoundly dependent on vocabulary knowledge. Learners must have access to the meanings of words that teachers, or their surrogates (e.g., other adults, books, films, etc.), use to guide them into contemplating known concepts in novel ways (i.e. to learn something new) ||
 * (Baker, Simmons, & Kame'enui, 1998) See[| References] ||
 * __Expressive Vocabulary:__** Requires a speaker or writer to __produce__ a specific label for a particular meaning.
 * __Receptive Vocabulary:__** Requires a reader to __associate__ a specific meaning with a given label as in reading or listening.

The Vocabulary Gap

 * Children who enter with limited vocabulary knowledge grow much more discrepant over time from their peers who have rich vocabulary knowledge (Baker, Simmons, & Kame'enui, 1997; see [|References]).
 * The number of words students learn varies greatly.
 * 2 vs. 8 words per day ||
 * 750 vs. 3,000 per year ||


 * 1) Printed school English, as represented by materials in grades 3 to 9, contains 88,533 distinct word families (Nagy & Anderson, 1984; see [|References]).
 * 88,533 word families result in total volumes of nearly 500,000 graphically distinct word types, including proper names. Roughly half of 500,000 words occur once or less in a billion words of text (Nagy & Anderson, 1984; see [|References]).
 * 1) An average student in grades 3 through 12 is likely to learn approximately 3,000 new vocabulary words each year, assuming he or she reads between 500,000 and a million running words of text a school year (Nagy & Anderson, 1984; see [|References]).
 * 2) Between grades 1 and 3, it is estimated that economically disadvantaged students' vocabularies increase by about 3,000 words per year and middle-class students' vocabularies increase by about 5,000 words per year.
 * 3) Children's vocabulary size approximately doubles between grades 3 and 7.
 * 4) Massive vocabulary growth appears to occur without much help from teachers.

How do I teach Vocabulary?

 * Three Goals for Vocabulary Instruction**
 * **[|Provide students with skills/opportunities to learn words independently]**
 * **[|Teach students the meanings of specific words]**
 * [|Nurture a love and appreciation of words and their us]


 * [|e]**

Types of Vocabulary Instruction

 * Direct instruction that teaches specific vocabulary to be read.
 * Pre-instruction of vocabulary in reading lesson.
 * Multiple exposures
 * Task restructuring
 * Active engagement
 * Computer technology
 * Incidental learning through reading.
 * Multiple methods versus single methods.
 * Use of context to learn unfamiliar word meanings.

Simplifying Direct Vocabulary Instruction: Matching Instruction to Your Goal

 * There are a limited number of ways to teach vocabulary directly!
 * The way you teach depends on learner knowledge and what you want students to be able to do.
 * Three Prominent Oral Vocabulary Teaching Strategies:
 * **[|Modeling (Examples):]** ||
 * || When it is impossible to use language to explain the meaning of a word (e.g., __between__, __in__). ||
 * **[|Synonyms:]** ||
 * || When a student knows a word(s) that can explain the meaning of a new, unknown word (e.g., __damp__ means a little wet). ||
 * **[|Definitions:]** ||
 * || When students have adequate language to understand a longer explanation and when the concept is too complicated to be explained through a synonym (e.g., __service station__ is a place where gasoline is sold and cars are repaired). ||

The Way You Teach Vocabulary Depends on Your Goal
Use concept teaching (modeling) when children have limited language and explanations contain words children do not understand.
 * __Kindergarten Standard:__** Identify Common Words and Sort in Basic Categories (colors, shapes, foods)
 * Other examples of categories: animals, position words, clothing
 * __Features of Concept Teaching (Modeling):__**
 * Set up (use the same material and vary only the dimension that changes it from the concept to not the concept).
 * Show a range of positive and negative examples
 * Include negative examples that are minimally different
 * Keep language consistent

Critical Design Features of Storybook Instruction

 * Repeated readings of stories (alternated)
 * Classic stories or on lists of recommended readings
 * Performance reading style (Extended intro; few interruptions during reading, dialogue after reading)
 * 3 target words per story
 * Scaffolded story grammar intro and retell

How to Select Words to Preteach

 * Identify words that are critical to story understanding that are not explained in the text.
 * Select words students will "encounter" again (moderate frequency words)
 * Preteach meanings of words using examples, synonyms, definitions
 * Provide children opportunities to use the words

Strategies for teaching vocabulary.